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Karolina Werner †¢ Violence as a Bargaining Tool: The Role of Youths in the 2007 Kenyan Elections Edwin Barasa Mang’eni †¢ Darfur, Grand Conflict: Inter-Communal Rift and Grass-root Initiatives for Reconciliation Khalid Ali El Amin AFRICA PEACE AND CONFLICT JOURNAL Executive Editor Amr Abdalla, University for Peace, Vice Rector Managing Editor Tony Karbo, University for Peace Africa Programme, Senior Programme Officer and Associate Professor Assistant Managing Editor Catherine Nelson EDITORIAL BOARD Amr Abdalla, University for Peace Bertha Kadenyi Amisi, Syracuse University Hizkias Assefa, Eastern Mennonite University Elham Atashi, Goucher College Johannes Botes, University of Baltimore Benjamin Broome, Arizona State University Jean-Bosco Butera, University for Peace Kevin Clements, University of Queensland Alyson Frendak, George Mason University Rachel Goldwyn, CARE International UK Michelo Hansungule, University of Pretoria Geoff Harris, University of KwaZulu-Natal Monica Kathina Juma, Kenyan Ambassador to the African Union and Ethiopia Tony Karbo, University for Peace Mary E. King, University for Peace Marion Keim Lees, University of Western Cape Gilbert Khadiagala, University of the Witwatersrand Terrence Lyons, George Mason University Pamela Machakanja, Africa University Guy Martin,Winston-Salem State University Erin McCandless, Journal of Peacebuilding and Development Christopher Mitchell, George Mason University Tim Murithi, Institute for Security Studies, Addis Ababa Susan Allen Nan, George Mason University Edith Natukunda, Makerere University Sulayman Nyang, Howard University Martin Rupiya, Office of the Prime Minister, Zimbabwe Mary Hope Schoewbel, United States Institute of Peace Craig Zelizer, Georgetown University ISSN 1659–3944 Copyright  ©2010 University for Peace The mission of the University for Peace is to provide humanity with an international institution of higher education for peace with the aim of promoting among all human beings a spirit of understanding, tolerance, and peaceful coexistence, to stimulate cooperation among peoples, and to help lessen obstacles and threats to world peace and progress in keeping with the noble aspirations proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations. Ancient Egyptians believed in afterlife quite heavily. Most of the ancient Egyptian kings (Pharaohs) were mummified due to this belief. Furthermore, many of the ancient Egyptian artworks have Gods in them. There are Gods for certain things such as God of the Sun and God of Death. However, the 21st century street art is more of expressing the artist’s feelings and commenting on certain things such as politics. For example, there is a famous street artist who lives in Paris, France, who has a nickname called ‘C215’ (real name is Christian Guemy). His artworks usually have people involved in them. However, his artworks are not just about normal people but people like beggars, elderly people, refugees and street kids because he is ‘obsessed’ with making an artwork of them, artwork of people who grew up in streets and lived in streets. He said, â€Å"I paint mostly tramps, refugees and street kids, people who really live the experience of the street and to whom the  street art  is almost never intended. † Visual Character†¦. Fig. 2, Ancient Egyptian Art, Tutt’ Art, 2011 Fig. 2, Ancient Egyptian Art, Tutt’ Art, 2011 Ancient Egyptian artworks often have people and Gods with appearances with human in them. The people in the ancient Egyptian artworks have their arms and shoulders positioned facing the front while their faces are facing the side, along with their legs and hips. The artworks of ancient Egypt are very symbolic. They have many meanings in the artwork, especially when it talks about spiritual practices and beliefs. Sometimes, they also have writings around or in the artwork. It probably could be understood by many other cultures except for those cultures wit completely different beliefs. However, street arts are understood by nearly everyone in the world as they have similar beliefs and religions. When it Fig. 3, Smiling Refugee, Street Art London, 2011 Fig. 3, Smiling Refugee, Street Art London, 2011 comes to personal comments on politics, it may be hard for some people to understand. The 21st century street artworks are very stylized, having different themes and styles for every street artists, except for those street artists who only leave their names or nicknames on walls. Theses can be seen as mess on the wall because it has no meaning in it. A street artist called ‘C215’ has very colourful style. This artist is told to be realistic but stylized. C215 describes the facial expressions of the main characters in his artworks very precisely to deliver a hidden message behind the art piece. As shown Fig. 4, Street Kid, Street Art London, 2011. Fig. 4, Street Kid, Street Art London, 2011. in figure one, three and four, he describes the facial expressions of elderly woman, refugee and a ‘street kid’ very precisely. Also, famous street artists often leave their special ‘logo’ somewhere in the artwork. For instance in figure four, a ‘logo’ for C215 can be seen next to the face. Medium and Technique†¦. Most of the common ancient Egyptian artworks were painted with paints made of mixed pigments with gum, which were the basic colours. Before papyrus leaves were used as papers, the paintings were often done on walls, which were sometimes carved in. These kinds of techniques were used in ancient Egyptian times because the actual paints and paintbrushes weren’t properly developed. Today, many kinds of tools and styles can be used. For example, C215 usually used stencils to paint on street walls. He makes a background on the wall either free hand or painted using stencils, and then puts his main character in the background. He either uses spray paints or paints and paintbrushes, but mostly, spray paints. It shows his personal style and it helps him to paint precise parts of painting such as facial expressions. Personal Response†¦. I think that every kind of art has one thing common in them; the artist’s feeling and expression of the time he/she created the artwork. If there is a slight difference between ancient Egyptian art and the 21st century street art, I have go to say that the artworks from ancient Egypt do not have sense of depth and they were all dull whereas 21st century street art has wide range of colours being used and vibrant. Most people will find street art more attractive than ancient Egyptian art as street art has different styles and they are very vibrant. Conclusion†¦. To sum up, ancient Egyptian art has many meanings for spiritual beliefs and practices. It was very symbolic as it represented human by its body parts, so the head is facing the side, shoulders and arms are facing the front and shoulders and arms are facing the side. It is mostly painted with basic colours that are made of mixed pigments and gum. On the other hand, graffiti is more like expressing a personal opinion on certain thing. It has many themes and styles along with many choices of colours. Almost everyone can understand street art. Furthermore there are many ways to paint for street art and one of many ways is stencils and paints.

Declaration Of Independance Essay Example For Students

Declaration Of Independance Essay National Archives and Records Administration The Stylistic Artistryof theDeclaration of Independenceby Stephen E. Lucas The Declaration of Independence is perhaps the most masterfully written state paper of Western civilization. As Moses Coit Tyler noted almost a century ago, no assessment of it can be complete without taking into account its extraordinary merits as a work of political prose style. Although many scholars have recognized those merits, there are surprisingly few sustained studies of the stylistic artistry of the Declaration.(1) This essay seeks to illuminate that artistry by probing the discourse microscopicallyat the level of the sentence, phrase, word, and syllable. By approaching the Declaration in this way, we can shed light both on its literary qualities and on its rhetorical power as a work designed to convince a candid world that the American colonies were justified in seeking to establish themselves as an independent nation.(2) The text of the Declaration can b e divided into five sectionsthe introduction, the preamble, the indictment of George III, the denunciation of the British people, and the conclusion. Because space does not permit us to explicate each section in full detail, we shall select features from each that illustrate the stylistic artistry of the Declaration as a whole.(3)The introduction consists of the first paragrapha single, lengthy, periodic sentence: When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Natures God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.(4)Taken out of context, this sentence is so general it could be used as the introduction to a declaration by any oppressed people. Seen within its original context, however, it is a model of subtlety, nuance, and implication that works on several levels of meaning and allusion to orient readers toward a favorable view of America and to prepare them for the rest of the Declaration. From its magisterial opening phrase, which sets the American Revolution within the whole course of human events, to its assertion that the Laws of Nature and of Natures God entitle America to a separate and equal station among the powers of the earth, to its quest for sanction from the opinions of mankind, the introduction elevates the quarrel with England from a petty political dispute to a major event in the grand sweep of history. It dignifies the Revolution as a contest of principle and implies that the American cause has a special claim to moral legitimacyall without mentioning England or America by name. Rather than defining the Declarations task as one of persuasion, which would doubtless raise the defenses of readers as well as imply that there was more than one publicly credible view of the British-American conflict, the introduction identifies the purpose of the Declaration as simply to declareto announce publicly in explicit termsthe causes impelling America to leave the British empire. This gives the Declaration, at the outset, an aura of philosophical (in the eighteenth-century sense of the term) objectivity that it will seek to maintain throughout. Rather than presenting one side in a public controversy on which good and decent people could differ, the Declaration purports to do no more than a natural philosopher would do in reporting the causes of any physical event. The issue, it implies, is not one of interpretation but of observation. The most important word in the introduction is necessary, which in the eighteenth century carried strongly deterministic overtones. To say an act was necessary implied that it was impelled by fate or determined by the operation of inextricable natural laws and was beyond the control of human agents. Thus Chamberss Cyclopedia defined necessary as that which cannot but be, or cannot be otherwise. The common notion of necessity and impossibility, Jonathan Edwards wrote in Freedom of the Will, implies something that frustrates endeavor or desire. . . . That is necessary in the original and proper sense of the word, which is, or will be, notwithstanding all supposable opposition. Characterizing the Revolution as necessary suggested that it resulted from constraints that operated with lawlike force throughout the material universe and within the sphere of human action. The Revolution was not merely preferable, defensible, or justifiable. It was as inescapable, as inevitable, as unavoidable within the course of human events as the motions of the tides or the changing of the seasons within the course of natural events.(5)Inves ting the Revolution with connotations of necessity was particularly important because, according to the law of nations, recourse to war was lawful only when it became necessaryonly when amicable negotiation had failed and all other alternatives for settling the differences between two states had been exhausted. Nor was the burden of necessity limited to monarchs and established nations. At the start of the English Civil War in 1642, Parliament defended its recourse to military action against Charles I in a lengthy declaration demonstrating the Necessity to take up Arms. Following this tradition, in July 1775 the Continental Congress issued its own Declaration Setting Forth the Causes and Necessity of Their Taking Up Arms. When, a year later, Congress decided the colonies could no longer retain their liberty within the British empire, it adhered to long-established rhetorical convention by describing independence as a matter of absolute and inescapable necessity.(6) Indeed, the notio n of necessity was so important that in addition to appearing in the introduction of the Declaration, it was invoked twice more at crucial junctures in the rest of the text and appeared frequently in other congressional papers after July 4, 1776.(7)Labeling the Americans one people and the British another was also laden with implication and performed several important strategic functions within the Declaration. First, because two alien peoples cannot be made one, it reinforced the notion that breaking the political bands with England was a necessary step in the course of human events. America and England were already separated by the more basic fact that they had become two different peoples. The gulf between them was much more than political; it was intellectual, social, moral, cultural and, according to the principles of nature, could no more be repaired, as Thomas Paine said, than one could restore to us the time that is past or give to prostitution its former innocence. To try t o perpetuate a purely political connection would be forced and unnatural, repugnant to reason, to the universal order of things.(8)Second, once it is granted that Americans and Englishmen are two distinct peoples, the conflict between them is less likely to be seen as a civil war. The Continental Congress knew America could not withstand Britains military might without foreign assistance. But they also knew America could not receive assistance as long as the colonies were fighting a civil war as part of the British empire. To help the colonies would constitute interference in Great Britains internal affairs. As Samuel Adams explained, no foreign Power can consistently yield Comfort to Rebels, or enter into any kind of Treaty with these Colonies till they declare themselves free and independent. The crucial factor in opening the way for foreign aid was the act of declaring independence. But by defining America and England as two separate peoples, the Declaration reinforced the percep tion that the conflict was not a civil war, thereby, as Congress noted in its debates on independence, making it more consistent with European delicacy for European powers to treat with us, or even to receive an Ambassador.(9)Third, defining the Americans as a separate people in the introduction eased the task of invoking the right of revolution in the preamble. That right, according to eighteenth-century revolutionary principles, could be invoked only in the most dire of circumstanceswhen resistance was absolutely necessary in order to preserve the nation from slavery, misery, and ruinand then only by the Body of the People. If America and Great Britain were seen as one people, Congress could not justify revolution against the British government for the simple reason that the body of the people (of which the Americans would be only one part) did not support the American cause. For America to move against the government in such circumstances would not be a justifiable act of resista nce but a sort of Sedition, Tumult, and War . . . aiming only at the satisfaction of private Lust, without regard to the public Good. By defining the Americans as a separate people, Congress could more readily satisfy the requirement for invoking the right of revolution that the whole Body of Subjects rise up against the government to rescue themselves from the most violent and illegal oppressions.(10)Like the introduction, the next section of the Declarationusually referred to as the preambleis universal in tone and scope. It contains no explicit reference to the British- American conflict, but outlines a general philosophy of government that makes revolution justifiable, even meritorious: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. Like the rest of the Declaration, the preamble is brief, free of verbiage, a model of clear, concise, simple statement.(11) It capsulizes in five sentences202words what it took John Locke thousands of words to explain in his Second Treatise of Government. Each word is chosen and placed to achieve maximum impact. Each clause is indispensable to the progression of thought. Each sentence is carefully constructed internally and in relation to what precedes and follows. In its ability to compress complex ideas into a brief, clear statement, the preamble is a paradigm of eighteenth-century Enlightenment prose style, in which purity, simplicity, directness, precision, and, above all, perspicuity were the highest rhetorical and literary virtues. One word follows another with complete inevitability of sound and meaning. Not one word can be moved or replaced without disrupting the balance and harmony of the entire preamble. The stately and dignified tone of the preamblelike that of the introductioncomes partly from what the eighteenth century called Style Periodique, in which, as Hugh Blair explained in his Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, the sentences are composed of several members linked together, and hanging upon one another, so that the sense of the whole is not brought out till the close. This, Blair said, is the most pompous, musical, and oratorical manner of composing and gives an air of gravity and dignity to composition. The gravity and dignity of the preamble were reinforced by its conformance with the rhetorical precept that when we aim at dignity or elevation, the sound of each sentence should be made to grow to the last; the longest members of the period, and the fullest and most sonorous words, should be reserved to the conclusion. None of the sentences of the preamble end on a single-syllable word; only one, the second (and least euphonious), ends on a two-syllable word. Of the other four, one ends with a four-syllable word (security), while three end with three-syllable words. Moreover, in each of the three-syllable words the closing syllable is at least a medium- length four-letter syllable, which helps bring the sentences to a full and harmonious close.(12)It is unlikely that any of this was accidental. Thoroughly versed in classical oratory and rhetorical theory as well as in the belletristic treatises of his own time, Thomas Jefferson, draftsman of the Declaration, was a diligent student of rhythm, accent, timing, and cadence in discourse. This can be seen most clearly in his Thoughts on English Prosody, a remarkable twenty-eight-page unpublished essay written in Paris during the fall of 1786. Prompted by a discussion on language with the Marquis de Chastellux at Monticello four years earlier, it was a careful inquiry designed to find out the real circumstance which gives harmony to English prose and laws to those who make it. Using roughly the same s ystem of diacritical notation he had employed in 1776 in his reading draft of the Declaration, Jefferson systematically analyzed the patterns of accentuation in a wide range of English writers, including Milton, Pope, Shakespeare, Addison, Gray, and Garth. Although Thoughts on English Prosody deals with poetry, it displays Jeffersons keen sense of the interplay between sound and sense in language. There can be little doubt that, like many accomplished writers, he consciously composed for the ear as well as for the eyea trait that is nowhere better illustrated than in the eloquent cadences of the preamble in the Declaration of Independence.(13)The preamble also has a powerful sense of structural unity. This is achieved partly by the latent chronological progression of thought, in which the reader is moved from the creation of mankind, to the institution of government, to the throwing off of government when it fails to protect the peoples unalienable rights, to the creation of new gov ernment that will better secure the peoples safety and happiness. This dramatic scenario, with its first act implicitly set in the Garden of Eden (where man was created equal), may, for some readers, have contained mythic overtones of humanitys fall from divine grace. At the very least, it gives an almost archetypal quality to the ideas of the preamble and continues the notion, broached in the introduction, that the American Revolution is a major development in the course of human events. Because of their concern with the philosophy of the Declaration, many modern scholars have dealt with the opening sentence of the preamble out of context, as if Jefferson and the Continental Congress intended it to stand alone. Seen in context, however, it is part of a series of five propositions that build upon one another through the first three sentences of the preamble to establish the right of revolution against tyrannical authority:Proposition 1: All men are created equal. Proposition 2: They all men, from proposition 1 areendowed by their creator with certainunalienable rights. Proposition 3: Among these mans unalienable rights,from proposition 2 are life, liberty,and the pursuit of happiness. Proposition 4: To secure these rights mansunalienable rights, from propositions 2and 3 governments are instituted amongmen. Proposition 5: Whenever any form of government becomesdestructive of these ends securingmans unalienable rights, frompropositions 2-4, it is the right ofthe people to alter or to abolish it. When we look at all five propositions, we see they are meant to be read together and have been meticulously written to achieve a specific rhetorical purpose. The first three lead into the fourth, which in turn leads into the fifth. And it is the fifth, proclaiming the right of revolution when a government becomes destructive of the peoples unalienable rights, that is most crucial in the overall argument of the Declaration. The first four propositions ar e merely preliminary steps designed to give philosophical grounding to the fifth. At first glance, these propositions appear to comprise what was known in the eighteenth century as a soritesa Way of Argument in which a great Number of Propositions are so linked together, that the Predicate of one becomes continually the Subject of the next following, until at last a Conclusion is formed by bringing together the Subject of the First Proposition and the Predicate of the last. In his Elements of Logick, William Duncan provided the following example of a sorites:God is omnipotent. An omnipotent Being can do every thing possible. He that can do every thing possible, can do whateverinvolves not a Contradiction. Therefore God can do whatever involves not aContradiction.(14)Although the section of the preamble we have been considering is not a sorites (because it does not bring together the subject of the first proposition and the predicate of the last), its propositions are written in such a way as to take on the appearance of a logical demonstration. They are so tightly interwoven linguistically that they seem to make up a sequence in which the final propositionasserting the right of revolutionis logically derived from the first four propositions. This is accomplished partly by the mimicry of the form of a sorites and partly by the sheer number of propositions, the accumulation of which is reinforced by the slow, deliberate pace of the text and by the use of that to introduce each proposition. There is also a steplike progression from proposition to proposition, a progression that is accentuated by the skillful use of demonstrative pronouns to make each succeeding proposition appear to be a n inevitable consequence of the preceding proposition. Although the preamble is the best known part of the Declaration today, it attracted considerably less attention in its own time. For most eighteenth-century readers, it was an unobjectionable statement of commonplace political principles. As Jefferson explained years later, the purpose of the Declaration was not to find out new principles, or new arguments, never before thought of . . . but to place before mankind the common sense of the subject, in terms so plain and firm as to command their assent, and to justify ourselves in the independent stand we are compelled to take.(15)Far from being a weakness of the preamble, the lack of new ideas was perhaps its greatest strength. If one overlooks the introductory first paragraph, the Declaration as a whole is structured along the lines of a deductive argument that can easily be put in syllogistic form: Major premise: When government deliberately seeks to reducethe people under absol ute despotism, thepeople have a right, indeed a duty, to alteror abolish that form of government and tocreate new guards for their future security. Minor premise: The government of Great Britain hasdeliberately sought to reduce the Americanpeople under absolute despotism. Conclusion: Therefore the American people have a right,indeed a duty, to abolish their present formof government and to create new guards fortheir future security. As the major premise in this argument, the preamble allowed Jefferson and the Congress to reason from self-evident principles of government accepted by almost all eighteenth-century readers of the Declaration.(16)The key premise, however, was the minor premise. Since virtually everyone agreed the people had a right to overthrow a tyrannical ruler when all other remedies had failed, the crucial question in July 1776 was whether the necessary conditions for revolution existed in the colonies. Congress answered this question with a sustained attack on George III, an attack that makes up almost exactly two-thirds of the text. The indictment of George III begins with a transitional sentence immediately following the preamble: Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. Legalize drugs EssayWhat marks Jeffersons happy talent for composition in this case is the coupling of our sacred Honor with our Lives and our Fortunes to create the eloquent trilogy that closes the Declaration. The concept of honor (and its cognates fame and glory) exerted a powerful hold on the eighteenth-century mind. Writers of all kindsphilosophers, preachers, politicians, playwrights, poetsrepeatedly speculated about the sources of honor and how to achieve it. Virtually every educated man in England or America was schooled in the classical maxim, What is left when honor is lost? Or as Joseph Addison wrote in his Cato, whose sentiments were widely admired throughout the eighteenth century on both sides of the Atlantic: Better to die ten thousand deaths/Than wound my honour. The cult of honor was so strong that in English judicial proceedings a peer of the realm did not answer to bills in chancery or give a verdict upon oath, like an ordinary juryman, but upon his honor.(28)By pledging our sacred Honor in support of the Declaration, Congress made a particularly solemn vow. The pledge also carried a latent message that the revolutionaries, contrary to the claims of their detractors, were men of honor whose motives and actions could not only withstand the closest scrutiny by contemporary persons of quality and merit but would also deserve the approbation of posterity. If the Revolution succeeded, its leaders stood to achieve lasting honor as what Francis Bacon called Liberatores or Salvatores men who compound the long Miseries of Civil Wars, or deliver their Countries from Servitude of Strangers or Tyrants. Historical examples included Augustus Caesar, Henry VII of England, and Henry IV of France. On Bacons five-point scale of supreme honor, such heroes ranked below only Conditores Imperiorum, Founders of States and Commonwealths, such as Romulus, Caesar, and Ottoman, and Lawgivers such as Solon, Lycurgus, and Justinian, also called Second Founders, or Perp etui Principes, because they Govern by their Ordinances after they are gone. Seen in this way, our sacred Honor lifts the motives of Congress above the more immediate concerns of our Lives and our Fortunes and places the revolutionaries in the footsteps of historys most honorable figures. As a result it also unifies the whole text by subtly playing out the notion that the Revolution is a major turn in the broad course of human events.(29)At the same time, the final sentence completes a crucial metamorphosis in the text. Although the Declaration begins in an impersonal, even philosophical voice, it gradually becomes a kind of drama, with its tensions expressed more and more in personal terms. This transformation begins with the appearance of the villain, the present King of Great Britain, who dominates the stage through the first nine grievances, all of which note what He has done without identifying the victim of his evil deeds. Beginning with grievance 10 the king is joined on stag e by the American colonists, who are identified as the victim by some form of first person plural reference: The king has sent swarms of officers to harass our people, has quartered armed troops among us, has imposed taxes on us without our consent, has taken away our charters, abolished our most valuable laws, and altered the Forms of our Governments. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, . . . destroyed the lives of our people, and excited domestic insurrections amongst us. The word our is used twenty-six times from its first appearance in grievance 10 through the last sentence of the Declaration, while us occurs eleven times from its first appearance in grievance 11 through the rest of the grievances.(30)Throughout the grievances action is instigated by the king, as the colonists passively accept blow after blow without wavering in their loyalty. His villainy complete, George III leaves the stage and it is occupied next by the colonists and their British brethren. The heavy use of personal pronouns continues, but by now the colonists have become the instigators of action as they actively seek redress of their grievances. This is marked by a shift in idiom from He has to We have: We have petitioned for redress . . . , We have reminded them . . . , We have appealed to their . . . , and We have conjured them. But they have been deaf to all pleas, so We must . . . hold them as enemies. By the conclusion, only the colonists remain on stage to pronounce their dramatic closing lines: We . . . solemnly publish and declare . . . And to support this declaration, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. The persistent use of he and them, us and our, we and they personalizes the British-American conflict and transfigures it from a complex struggle of multifarious origins and diverse motives to a simple moral drama in which a patiently suffering people courageously defend their liberty against a cruel and v icious tyrant. It also reduces the psychic distance between the reader and the text and coaxes the reader into seeing the dispute with Great Britain through the eyes of the revolutionaries. As the drama of the Declaration unfolds, the reader is increasingly solicited to identify with Congress and the good People of these Colonies, to share their sense of victimage, to participate vicariously in their struggle, and ultimately to act with them in their heroic quest for freedom. In this respect, as in others, the Declaration is a work of consummate artistry. From its eloquent introduction to its aphoristic maxims of government, to its relentless accumulation of charges against George III, to its elegiac denunciation of the British people, to its heroic closing sentence, it sustains an almost perfect synthesis of style, form, and content. Its solemn and dignified tone, its graceful and unhurried cadence, its symmetry, energy, and confidence, its combination of logical structure and dram atic appeal, its adroit use of nuance and implication all contribute to its rhetorical power. And all help to explain why the Declaration remains one of the handful of American political documents that, in addition to meeting the immediate needs of the moment, continues to enjoy a lustrous literary reputation. NOTESc 1989 by Stephen E. LucasStephen E. Lucas is professor of communication arts at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI. The present essay is derived from a more comprehensive study, Justifying America: The Declaration of Independence as a Rhetorical Document, in Thomas W. Benson, ed., American Rhetoric: Context and Criticism (1989). (1) Moses Coit Tyler, The Literary History of the American Revolution (1897), vol. 1, p. 520. The best known study of the style of the Declaration is Carl Beckers The Literary Qualities of the Declaration, in his The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas (1922), pp. 194-223. Useful also are Robert Ginsberg, The Declaration as Rhetoric, in Robert Ginsberg, ed., A Casebook on the Declaration of Independence (1967), pp. 219-244; Edwin Gittleman, Jeffersons Slave Narrative: The Declaration of Independence as a Literary Text, Early American Literature 8 (1974): 239-256; and James Boyd White, When Words Lose Their Meaning: Constitutions and Reconstitutions of Language, Character, and Community (1984), 231 240. Although most books on the Declaration contain a chapter on the style of the document, those chapters are typically historical accounts of the evolution of the text from its drafting by Thomas Jefferson through its approval by the Continental Congress or philosophical speculations about the meaning of its famous passages. (2) As Garry Wills demonstrates in Inventing America: Jeffersons Declaration of Independence (1978), there are two Declarations of Independence the version drafted by Thomas Jefferson and that revised and adopted on July 4, 1776, by the Continental Congress sitting as a committee of the whole. Altogether Congress deleted 630 words from Jeffersons draft and added 146, producing a final text of 1,322 words (excluding the title). Although Jefferson complained that Congress mangled his manuscript and altered it much for the worse, the judgment of posterity, stated well by Becker, is that Congress left the Declaration better than it found it (Declaration of Independence, p. 209). In any event, for better or worse, it was Congresss text that presented Americas case to the world, and it is that text with which we are concerned in this essay. (3) Nothing in this essay should be interpreted to mean that a firm line can be drawn between style and substance in the Declaration or in any other wo rk of political or literary discourse. As Peter Gay has noted, style is form and content woven into the texture of every art and craft. . . . Apart from a few mechanical tricks of rhetoric, manner is indissolubly linked to matter; style shapes and is in turn shaped by, substance (Style in History 1974, p. 3). (4) All quotations from the Declaration follow the text as presented in Julian P. Boyd et al., eds., The Papers of Thomas Jefferson (1950 ), vol. 1, pp. 429-432. (5) Ephraim Chambers, Cyclopedia: Or, An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1728), vol. 2, p. 621; Jonathan Edwards, Freedom of the Will, ed. Paul Ramsey (1957), p. 149. (6) Declaration of the Lords and Commons to Justify Their Taking Up Arms, August 1642, in John Rushworth, ed., Historical Collections of Private Passages of State, Weighty Matters in Law, Remarkable Proceedings in Five Parliaments (1680-1722), vol. 4, pp. 761-768; Declaration of the Continental Congress Setting Forth the Causes and Necessity of Their Taking Up Arms, July 1775, in James H. Hutson, ed., A Decent Respect to the Opinions of Mankind: Congressional State Papers, 1774-1776 (1975), pp. 89-98. The importance of necessity as a justification for war among nations is evident in the many declarations of war issued by European monarchs throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and is discussed in Tavers Twiss, The Law of Nations Considered as Independent Political Communities (1863), pp. 54-55. (7) The first additional invocation of the doctrine of necessity in the Declaration comes immediately after the preamble, when Congress states, Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of Government. The second is at the end of the penultimate section, in which Congress ends its denunciation of the British people by announcing, We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.(8) Thomas Paine, Common Sense: Addressed to the Inhabitants of America . . . (1776), pp. 41, 43. (9) Samuel Adams to Joseph Hawley, Apr. 15, 1776, Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1774 1789, ed. Paul H. Smith (1976 ), vol. 3, p. 528; Thomas Jefferson, Notes of Proceedings in the Continental Congress, Jefferson Papers 1: 312. (10) Jonathan Mayhew, A Discourse Concerning Unlimited Submission and Nonresistance to the Higher Powers . . . (1750), p. 45; John, Lord Somers, The Judgment of Whole Kingdoms and Nations, Concerning the Rights, Power and Prerogative of Kings, and the Rights, Privileges and Properties of the People (1710), par. 186; Algernon Sidney, Discourses Concerning Government (1693), p. 181; John Hoadly, ed., The Works of Benjamin Hoadly (1773), vol. 2, p. 36; Pacificus, Pennsylvania Gazette, Sept. 14, 1774. (11) Becker, Declaration of Independence, p. 201. (12) Hugh Blair, Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres (1783), vol. 1, pp. 206-207, 259. (13) Thoughts on English Prosody was enclosed in an undated letter of ca. October 1786 to the Marquis de Chastellux. The letter is printed in Jefferson Papers 10: 498; the draft of Jeffersons essay, which has not been printed, is with the letter to Chastellux in the Thomas Jefferson Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. Julian P. Boyd, The Declaration of Independence: The Mystery of the Lost Original, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1976): 455-462, discusses Thoughts on English Prosody and its relation to Jeffersons reading text of the Declaration. Given the changes made by Congress in some sections of the Declaration, it should be noted that the style of the preamble is distinctly Jeffersonian and was approved by Congress with only two minor changes in wording from Jeffersons fair copy as reported by the Committee of Five. (14) William Duncan, The Elements of Logick (1748), p. 242. See also Isaac Watts, Logick: or, The Right Use of Reason in the Enquiry After Truth, 8th ed. (1745), p. 304; Henry Aldrich, A Compendium of Logic, 3d ed. (1790), p. 23. (15) Jefferson to Henry Lee, May 5, 1825, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Paul Leicester Ford (1892-1899), vol. 10, p. 343. (16) Wilbur Samuel Howell, The Declaration of Independence and Eighteenth-Century Logic, William and Mary Quarterly, 3d Ser. 18 (1961): 463-484, claims Jefferson consciously structured the Declaration as a syllogism with a self-evident major premise to fit the standards for scientific proof advanced in William Duncans Elements of Logick, a leading logical treatise of the eighteenth century. As I argue in a forthcoming essay, however, there is no hard evidence to connect Duncans book with the Declaration. Jefferson may have read Elements of Logick while he was a student at the College of William and Mary, but we are not certain that he did. He owned a copy of it, but we cannot establish whether the edition he owned was purchased before or after 1776. We cannot even say with complete confidence that Jefferson inserted the words self-evident in the Declaration; if he did, it was only as an afterthought in the process of polishing his original draft. Moreover, upon close examination it b ecomes clear that the Declaration does not fit the method of scientific reasoning recommended in Duncans Logick. Its self- evident truths are not self-evident in the rigorous technical sense used by Duncan; it does not provide the definitions of terms that Duncan regards as the crucial first step in syllogistic demonstration; and it does not follow Duncans injunction that both the minor premise and the major premise must be self-evident if a conclusion is to be demonstrated in a single act of reasoning. The syllogism had been part of the intellectual baggage of Western civilization for two thousand years, and the notion of self-evident truth was central to eighteenth-century philosophy. Jefferson could readily have used both without turning to Duncans Logick for instruction. (17) Declaration in John Cowell, Nomothetes. The Interpreter, Concerning the Genuine Signification of Such Obscure Words and Terms Used Either in the Common or Statute Laws of This Realm . . . (1684). For the requirements of legal declarations in various kinds of civil suits during the eighteenth century, see William Selwyn, An Abridgement of the Law of Nisi Prius, 4th ed. (1817). (18) Fact in Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language: In Which the Words are Deduced from Their Origins and Illustrated in Their Different Significations by Examples from the Best Writers (1755). (19) Oxford English Dictionary (1933), vol. 4, pp. 11-12; Sir William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (1771), vol. 4, p. 39; The Annual Register, Or a View of the History, Politics, and Literature for the Year 1772 (1773), p. 57. (20) John Lind, Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress . . . , 5th ed. (1776), p. 123. Because the grievances are not numbered in the Declaration, there has been disagreement over how many there are and how they should be numbered. I have followed Sidney George Fisher, The Twenty-Eight Charges against the King in the Declaration of Independence, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 31 (1907): 257-303. An alternative numbering system is used by Wills, Inventing America, pp. 68-75. (21) Samuel Adams to John Pitts, ca. July 9, 1776, Letters of Delegates 4: 417. The sole congressional paper before the Declaration of Independence to list grievances topically was the 1774 Bill of Rights (Hutson, Decent Respect, pp. 49-57). (22) Thomas Hutchinson, Strictures upon the Declaration of the Congress at Philadelphia . . . (1776), p. 16; Ralph Cudworth, The True Intellectual System of the Universe (1678), p. 601; Richard Hooker, Of the Laws of Ecclesiasticall Politie (1594 1596), vol. 5, sec. 67, p. 178. (23) Between 1764 and 1766 England added twenty-five comptrollers, four surveyors general, and one plantation clerk to its customs service in America. It added seventeen more officials in 1767 with the creation of a Board of Customs Commissioners to reside in Boston. These appointments may also have generated a mild ripple effect, resulting in the hiring of a few lesser employees to help with office chores and customs searches, but there is no way to know, since the records are now lost. See Thomas C. Barrow, Trade and Empire: The British Customs Service in Colonial America, 1660 1775 (1967), pp. 186-187, 220-221. (24) Howard Mumford Jones, The Declaration of Independence: A Critique, in The Declaration of Independence: Two Essays (1976), p. 7; sentence against Richard III in Rotuli Parliamentorum; ut et petitiones placita in Parliamento (1783 1832), vol. 6, p. 276. (25) Thomas Jefferson to Maria Cosway, Oct. 12, 1786, Jefferson Papers 10: 451; John Adams to Benjamin Hichborn, May 29, 1776, Letters of Delegates 4: 96; Paine, Common Sense, pp. 40-42. (26) See note 20 for bibliographic information on Linds pamphlet. (27) Becker, Declaration of Independence, p. 197. (28) For the importance of fame and honor to the revolutionaries, see Douglass Adair, Fame and the Founding Fathers, in Fame and the Founding Fathers, ed. Trevor Colbourn (1974), pp. 3-26; Garry Wills, Cincinnatus: George Washington and the Enlightenment (1984), pp. 109 148; Bruce Miroff, John Adams: Merit, Fame, and Political Leadership, Journal of Politics 48 (1986): 116-132. The quotation about Jeffersons happy talent for composition is from John Adams to Timothy Pickering, Aug. 6, 1822, The Works of John Adams, ed. Charles Francis Adams (1850), vol. 2, p. 511. The statement about peers of the realm is from Blackstone, Commentaries 1: 40 (29) Francis Bacon, The Essayes or Counsels, Civill and Morall . . . (1625), pp. 313-314. See Adair, Fame and the Founding Fathers, pp. 114-115, for the importance of Bacons essay on honor among the revolutionaries. (30) Cf. Ginsberg, The Declaration as Rhetoric, p. 228. Declaration Page| Exhibit Hall National Archives and Records AdministrationURL: http://www.nara.gov/exhall/charters/declaration/decstyle.htmlemailprotectedLast updated: January 13, 1997

Promotion Mix To Create An IMC Campaign Marketing Essay Essay Example

Promotion Mix To Create An IMC Campaign Marketing Essay Paper As defined by the American Association of Advertising Agencies, integrated selling communications ( IMC ) is a construct of marketing communications be aftering that recognizes the added value of a comprehensive program ( Elliott, 2012, P:491 ) . Companies that sell merchandises or services use some or all of the constituents of a selling and communications mix, besides called a promotional mix. These include advertisement, personal gross revenues, gross revenues publicities, public dealingss and direct selling. Most national trade names use all parts of the mix, each in proportion to the demands of the merchandise. Cereal shapers, for illustration, concentrate most attempts and money on advertisement and gross revenues publicities, such as vouchers. Other merchandises call for different mix ratios, with some mix constituents wholly eschewed. We will write a custom essay sample on Promotion Mix To Create An IMC Campaign Marketing Essay specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Promotion Mix To Create An IMC Campaign Marketing Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Promotion Mix To Create An IMC Campaign Marketing Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In add-on to these cardinal promotional tools, the seller can besides utilize other techniques, such as exhibitions and merchandise arrangement in films, vocals or picture games, which have been turning in popularity in recent old ages. Before continuing any farther, nevertheless, it is of import to emphasize that promotional mix determinations should non be made in isolation. As we saw with pricing, all facets of the selling mix demand to be blended together carefully. The promotional mix used must be aligned with the determinations made with respect to merchandise, pricing and distribution, in order to pass on benefits to a mark market. But for a soft-drinks shaper like Pepsi, IMC can besides be used can be used to make more communicating impact, e.g. Ad can be combined with gross revenues publicities and a small spot of public dealingss such as sponsorship/events. From the facts of the instance survey, Pepsi used a new attack in its selling communicating. Pepsi holds the figure one, 3rd and 4th place among music, overall place among all companies, and amusement channels. It gives a important part on the music channels with 12.81 % portion of coverage and holds the first place in that class. It has the 3rd place on the whole Television media with overall 4.29 % portion of coverage, the effectivity of which is reported in decrease by research workers ( Kotler A ; Keller 2006, p.576 ) . Similarly, it comes at figure 4th on amusement channels. Overall, these new media win the trust of consumers by linking with them at a deeper degree. Sellers are taking note of many different societal media chances and get downing to implement new societal enterprises at a higher rate than of all time before. Social media selling and the concerns that utilize it have become more sophisticated. Q2. How efficaciously has Pepsi integrated digital and traditional media for the publicity of their merchandises? Provide examples of digital media used. Nowadays 1000000s of consumers converse on a day-to-day footing in on-line communities, treatment forums, web logs and societal webs. They turn to the Internet to portion sentiments, advice, grudges and recommendations. It has been said that traditional media is losing its face value and that the Internet is a craze and digital merely applies to the millenary coevals. While that may look true, if you want to remain on the advanced cusp for your concern, utilize both traditional and internet media selling and here are some grounds why: 1. On-line conversations can power or deflate a company s trade name. Do you hold a presence? 2. Discover specific issues that are being discussed around your company, trade name or organisation and make feedback to these issues. 3. There may be events, tendencies and issues that may be act uponing industry and trade name bombilation. 4. Measure how your online and offline selling runs resonate with consumers. 5. Leverage viva-voce to drive trade name credibleness, and finally gross revenues if you use face-to-face selling, Internet Marketing, Search Engine Optimization Strategy, and Social Media Strategy right. Peoples are more likely to pass on through both viva-voce and societal media when they are engaged with the merchandise, service, or thought. This battle may come of course for protagonists of causes, political campaigners, and voguish new technological merchandises. However, it can besides be creatively stimulated for merchandises and services which generate less psychological engagement of clients. For illustration, Pepsi ( 2008 ) uses its Pepsi Stuff online client trueness plan to prosecute consumers by enabling them to deliver points for MP3 downloads, telecasting show downloads, Cadmiums, DVDs, electronics, and dress. Political campaign participants are besides allowed to take part in sweepstakes drawings for larger awards, such as place theatre systems and trip giveaways. Coca Cola ( 2008 ) has a similar run entitled My Coke Rewards. Harmonizing to Nielson research, Television users watch more than of all time before ( an norm of 127 hour, 15 min per month ) and these users are passing 9 % more clip utilizing the Internet ( 26 hour, 26 min per month ) from last twelvemonth. Approximately 220 million Americans have Internet entree at place and/or work with a turning figure utilizing the Internet for research and societal media. Knowing this research, traditional media entertains and communicates to a mass audience whereas digital media entertains, communicates with, and engages the person. The benefits of digital media can be extremely mensurable and sellers can frequently see a direct consequence in the signifier of improved gross revenues in add-on to set uping a direct nexus with the consumer. This can besides be cost effectual. However, the booby traps of digital selling can be that the medium is new, invariably altering and germinating with consequences that vary. You frequently acquire what you ask for! Digital media is known as digitized content ( text, artworks, sound and picture ) that can be transmitted over the Internet. While digital media ingestion such as chirrup, facebook, youtube etc have increased enormously, Pepsi can non disregard consumers who still rely on traditional media for their enlightening and amusement demands, as a consequence, 2/3 of their advertisement budget is still dedicated to traditional media. Sellers must strike a good balance between utilizing traditional and digital/social media and other promotional tools Q3. How might Pepsi step the effectivity of its new run? Provide examples. The most suited standards for measuring the effectivity of advertisement, depends on a figure variables, such as the advertisement ends, the type of media used, the cost of rating, the value that the concern or advertisement bureau topographic points on rating steps, the degree of preciseness and dependability required, who the rating is for and the budget. It is hard to accurately mensurate the effectivity of a peculiar advertizement, because it is affected by such things as the sum and type of anterior advertisement The best measuring of a run s effectivity is its ability to run into its aims. From the instance survey, Pepsi s aims could be: Attract more rival s users ( such as Coca-Cola ) Increase gross revenues volume Hold present Customers Create trade name consciousness To project a rejuvenated image for Pepsi as a socially responsible corporation To alter consumer attitudes from impersonal or unfavorable ( it is a soft drink after all ) to positive To utilize newer, digital media to prosecute in bipartisan communicating with their customers/public. To pass on its new image via it new packaging By and large, Pepsi could utilize the followers to mensurate the run s effectivity: Stimulate an addition in gross revenues Remind clients of the being of a merchandise Inform clients Construct a trade name image Build client trueness and relationship Change client attitudes Sellers recognize that in the modern universe of selling there are many different chances and methods for reaching current and prospective clients to supply them with information about a company and/or trade names. The challenge is to understand how to utilize the assorted IMC tools to do such contacts and present the stigmatization message efficaciously and expeditiously. A successful IMC plan requires that sellers find the right combination of communicating tools and techniques, define their function and the extent to which they can or should be used, and organize their usage. To carry through this, the individuals responsible for the company s communicating attempts must hold an apprehension of the IMC tools that are available and the ways they can be used.

Frank McCourts Angelas Ashes and James Joyces A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Essays

Frank McCourts Angelas Ashes and James Joyces A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Essays Frank McCourts Angelas Ashes and James Joyces A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Paper Frank McCourts Angelas Ashes and James Joyces A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Paper such as Thou shalt love the Lord thy God, Let us love one another and so on. 2. Sentences expressing moral views, such as Brethren, these things ought not so to be, It is not good for man to be alone etc. 1 The remaining points highlight sentences expressing factual truths, sentences expressing analytic truths, and sentences that inform the reader about the supernatural and metaphysical. : The concerns of Joyce and McCourt, though, appear to be with the first two types (more detailed examples of exactly how will soon follow). The focus of Angelas Ashes is primarily McCourts schooldays, during which time the principal tenets of Christianity are drummed into them in the form of commands, injunctions, exhortations, wishes etc. mainly in application to heresy, both written and spoken (Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord in vain and so on). Equally, there are a great many instances of this in Joyces novel. The list delivered above by J Wilson, however, seems rather basic and not as detailed as others, such as the following list and diagram courtesy of Mr G. B. Caird: We use words: (1) to talk about people, things and ideas [informative]; (2) to think [cognitive]; (3) to do things and to get things done [performative and causative]; (4) to display or elicit attitudes and feelings [expressive and evocative]; and (5) to provide a means of communal solidarity [cohesive]. The first two clearly belong together we shall call these two uses referential. Similarly the third and fourth uses belong together under the general heading commissive, since we involve ourselves in or commit ourselves to the actions, attitudes and feelings to which we give utterance. Use Virtue Vice Referential Informative Truth Falsehood Referential Cognitive Rationality Fallacy Commissive Performative Validity Invalidity Commissive Expressive Sincerity Insincerity Cohesive Rapport Discord The various uses and abuses of language operate sometimes in isolation, but far more often in combination. The crucial difference between the exemplars presented by the two theorists is not in the greater detail that Caird gives, but in the fact that Caird recognises the capacities of abuse that religious language can facilitate as well as those of positive use. It is my belief that examples of all five categories that he lists can be found in the novels to be explored here, albeit under several sub-categories. It is this approach (loosely based on Caird, but with sub-categories) that I will be using to examine the language of religion as well as its relation to the use of Irish in the church. The first sub-category, as it were, which neither theorist mentions explicitly but I believe to be found copiously in both novels, is that of language as a threat. Admittedly, Caird almost gets there, asserting that when we reach the point at which words are used as weapons, it is inevitable that there should be a clash between the referential use of language, whose object is truth, and the emotive use, whose object is victory. 3 Of course, the sheer number of examples means that not all will be mentioned here. The first of the most significant comes in Portrait, where a preacher is speaking to Stephen Dedalus, among others, about the devils that they will meet in hell if they do not act in a Christian manner. Such is the language of those fiendish tormentors, words of taunting and of reproach, of hatred and of disgust O, my dear little brothers in Christ, may it never be our lot to hear that language! 4 Not only does the preacher use his words to dissuade the boys from bad behaviour, he also layers the threat by emphasising the dreadful heresy that comes from the mouths of devils. The theme of heresy which could perhaps be dubbed another sub-category, and which is an important product of both spoken and written language in a religious context is a thread that runs throughout both novels, particularly in McCourts case. He recounts one incident when, after saying to a priest that Emers wife won him in a pissing contest, heard from another child who had apparently read it in a book, the priest urges him to turn your mind from those silly stories because books can be dangerous for children5 presumably to direct the children to safer forms of the written word, such as the Bible. Earlier in the novel, McCourts younger brother is rebuked for using the word shitty (you could go to hell using a word like that [McCourt, 40]) and in Portrait, similarly, Dante reproaches those at the dinner table with the words nice language for any Catholic to use [Joyce, 35]. If people are deliberately heretical, then it is probably most closely described by Cairds point 4 (language to express and evoke emotion and feeling). However, there are plenty of circumstances where people are apparently heretical without knowing it. Some of the examples already given could easily fall into this category. Mr Tate also accuses Stephen Dedalus of having heresy in his essay [Joyce, 89], and it is implied that Stephen was unaware of the nature of his words. The implication is that as a religious person one should only use language for good, thus allowing a form of censorship to continue. Heresy, though, it could be argued (and this can be applied to any communication to which people take offence), is largely defined by levels of society who want other levels of society to feel a certain way; or at best, this definition is highly dependent on the person reading the heresy or offensive words. This leads neatly to the notion, addressed by both authors, that religious language is ambiguous. Whether this is done expressly or unintentionally is another matter and would take this essay too far into the realms of philosophy and issues related to censorship. Mr J Prescott points out that the young Dedalus [becomes] aware of a deficiency in the language6, and this is largely applicable to both novels. Perhaps crucially, it is not only the children in the novels but also the adults who are painfully aware of this ambiguity. After McCourts first Communion, his grandmother feeds him an enormous Communion breakfast, which he promptly vomits up into her back garden (along with, one assumes, the Communion wine and wafer). His grandmother sends him to Confession, where the priest tells McCourt to tell your grandmother to wash God away with a little water [McCourt, 144]. Upon his return his grandmother asks him, Ordinary water or holy water? On replying that he didnt know because he hadnt asked and the priest hadnt said, McCourt is promptly sent back to the confessional to find out. This amusing anecdote is highly illustrative of the onus placed on the church to get things right and the faith that Catholics placed in the language of religion perhaps more than in the religion itself. As McCourt grows up, he slowly discovers that adultery is not just impure thoughts, words and deeds (as drummed into him at school), during an illicit library session, where, among other things, he looks up the word virgin in the dictionary and reads a book of Chinese essays on love (which results in him being promptly ejected from the library). This is perhaps a baser example than Dedalus discussion of the definition of the Latin word claritas [Joyce, 242], but in both cases, the ambiguity is slowly dissipated and the ideas behind the opaque language of religion become far clearer. Both authors use other languages as metaphors to further illustrate this point. Towards the end of Portrait, Dedalus describes a conversation with Ghezzi, which began in Italian and ended in pidgin English [Joyce, 283], which in itself denotes the confusion and transience often associated with the language of religion (not to mention language in general). Both novels make great use of Latin (and in particular, memorising it ritualistically without necessarily memorising the meaning) to much the same end. This obsessive quality associated with Latin can also be found in many of Seamus Heaneys language poems, demarcating Latin as something deeply associated with Ireland and Irish language in general as well as the language of the church. One critic, though, dismisses Latin as merely a starting point rather than a model7 this seems greatly erroneous in light of all of the Latinate references in both texts and the way this is made to tie in with Irish. This quotation from Angelas Ashes seems fairly representative of how both authors choose to demonstrate this line of reasoning: We have to know them [the prayers and creeds] in Irish and English and if we forget an Irish word and use English he goes into a rage and goes at us with the stick. If he had his way wed be learning our religion in Latin, the language of the saints who communed intimately with God and His Holy Mother, the language of the early Christians, who huddled in the catacombs and went forth to die on rack and sword, who expired in the foaming jaws of the ravenous lion. Irish is fine for patriots, English for traitors and informers, but its the Latin that gains us entrance to heaven itself. Its the Latin the martyrs prayed in when the barbarians pulled out their nails and cut off their skin inch by inch. The reiteration of Latin, Latin, Latin relates directly to other anecdotes in both novels: McCourts father taking the part of priest to make sure he knew the responses for Mass in Latin; Dedalus admiring at how the prefect of the chapels memory seemed to know the responses [Joyce, 19] both instances proving highly performative, giving further credence to Cairds model of religious language. Despite this emphasis on Latin, though, the effects of religious language on Irishness (and vice versa) is far more complex than it may first appear. Initially a utilitarian approach was favoured, with English becoming the favoured language for the pulpit and for religious instruction at the end of the eighteenth century. Daniel OConnell (also known as The Liberator or The Emancipator), a prominent political leader in the first half of the nineteenth century, also turned his back on Irish for reasons of expediency, despite having been brought up to speak Irish, declaring that he was sufficiently utilitarian not to regret its gradual passing8. It seems fair to say, from McCourts writings, that people in Ireland (even in the early 20th century, which is where his memoirs are set) were suffering from receiving mixed messages from the church and from their elders: They hit you if you cant say your name in Irish, if you cant say the Hail Mary in Irish, if you cant ask for the lavatory pass in Irish One master will hit you if you dont know that Eamon de Valera is the greatest man that ever lived. Another master will hit you if you dont know that Michael Collins is the greatest man that ever lived. Mr Benson hates America and you have to remember to hate America or hell hit you. Mr ODea hates England and you have to remember to hate England or hell hit you. If you ever say anything good about Oliver Cromwell theyll all hit you. [McCourt, 85] Every movement, however slight, had political implications and religious semantics ingrained within it, tangled further by the administration throughout history, who seemed to delight in moving the linguistic goalposts. Various strategies from the Gaelic League and the Old English clergy dictated the use of spoken Irish rather than classical Irish, since their concern was to teach religion, not language9 (in the case of the latter) and pushed the link between true religion and the native language (in the case of the former). The effective founder of the Gaelic League, Eoin MacNeill, had no doubt that these were deeply interfused, observing that When we learn to speak Irish, we soon find that it is what we may call essential Irish to acknowledge God, His presence, and His help, even in our most trivial conversation. 10 For Eoin MacNeill, the use of Irish wasnt simply about sustaining the use of a minority language or even about being at loggerheads with the English. His statement on the issue implies that he felt closer to God when he prayed in Irish, which in turn also implies the possibility that religious language could potentially be the culprit for stirring emotion, particularly in Stephen Dedal us case, rather than religion itself. When the words mulier cantat are sung by the woman in the church, it is the soft beauty of the Latin word [Joyce, 278] that proves almost hypnotic for Cranly and Stephen rather than the religious undertones (also see Joyce 193). Immediately following this passage, Stephen becomes angry at almost having been seduced by religion itself, when he knows it was only the languages beauty doing its work: The verses passed from his mind to his lips and, murmuring them over, he felt the rhythmic movement of a villanelle pass through them. The roselike glow sent forth its rays of rhyme; ways, days, blaze, praise, raise. Its rays burned up the world, consumed the hearts of men and angels The earth was like a swinging swaying censer, a ball of incense, an ellipsoidal ball. The rhythm died out at once; the cry of his heart was broken. His lips began to murmur the first verses over and over; then went on stumbling through half verses, stammering and baffled; then stopped. [Joyce, 248]. This almost religious reaction to a non-religious event is common throughout Portrait and later proves ironic as this religious element clings to Stephen like a residue, even when he is attempting to break away from religion. This is perhaps what Caird meant by the expressive, emotional, evocative element of religious language. To (one would guess) a similar end, Joyce also habitually uses religious metaphor not just in Portrait (how could a woman be a tower of ivory or a house of gold? [Joyce, 40]), but also in one of the short stories featured in Dubliners, The Dead, to name but two examples: His soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow falling faintly through the universe and faintly falling, like the descent of their last end, upon all the living and the dead. 11 The use of hieratic language in non-hieratical matters seems to be a favourite technique. Alongside that of religious metaphors, Joyce and McCourt both raise issues of naming in relation to religion. It is difficult to concisely express the significance that this has without getting into complex discussions of whether naming need be semantic. In McCourts novel, this mainly concerns his encounters as a boy with Mrs Leibowitz, a Jewish woman. In the two instances concerned, she comments on the name of his little brother Malachy in the first (nice Chewish name [McCourt 29]) and on their pronunciation of challah in the second (Malachy calls it pull bread but Mrs Leibowitz says, No, its challah, and teaches us how to say it. She shakes her head. Oy, you Irish. Youll live forever but youll never say challah like a Chew. [McCourt, 38]). The author himself is also named after St Francis of Assisi, a common practice. Joyces treatment of the issue is more semantic: God was Gods name just as his name was Stephen. Dieu was the French for God and that was Gods name too; and when anyone prayed to God and said Dieu then God knew at once that it was a French person that was praying. But, though there were different names for God in all the different languages in the world still God remained always the same God and Gods real name was God. [Joyce, 17-18] Joyce implies here that religious language is not important, because all languages apparently lead to the same God; whereas Eoin MacNeill clearly disagreed, in his endorsement of the use of Irish for prayer. However, critics point out that historically, Joyce stands precisely at a juncture where Catholic nationalism disregards its rural and Gaelic culture in favour of an engagement with British democracy and its very different codes and discourses12. He is bound, therefore, to reflect such confusion in his work and even to attempt rebellion therein, by homogenising all languages and implying that they will all reach God in the same way. Equally, when Stephen is at the university, Latin is used as a joke-his friends translate colloquial phrases like peace over the whole bloody globe into Latin because they find the academic sound of the translation amusing. This jocular use of Latin mocks both the young mens education and the stern, serious manner in which Latin is used in the church. These linguistic jokes demonstrate that Stephen is no longer serious about religion. The two central texts on which this paper concentrates are positioned at a key crossroads of Irish literature. It is hardly surprising that the two authors give such diverse messages in their works regarding the language of religion itself, for the history of the use of language in the church is nothing short of convoluted. Ireland imposes a set of oppressive binaries, namely in the form of religion and nationalism, from which the authors can escape only through the ambiguity of language. Both authors portray confusion in this area, with Stephen Dedalus in Portrait ironically using rather hieratic language as he attempts to elevate himself and his life above and beyond what religion can provide. McCourt, however, is more philosophical as the language of religion becomes clearer with age, pointing out that the ambiguity of language is used in a great many other contexts, such as the euphemistic terming of death as going to sleep. The two authors successfully demonstrate how language is an instrument of control as well as of communication, with linguistic forms allowing significance to be conveyed and distorted; they also successfully demonstrate how hearers can be both manipulated and informed, and (in some cases) manipulated while they suppose they are being informed. 3 The many fluctuations between Irish, English and Latin in the churchs history of this period leave many question marks over religious language for both authors. Ultimately, though, the language of religion is ultimately manipulated for personal or political gain either by the church, to stop their children leaving the flock; or, in the case of Joyce, by the protagonist Stephen Dedalus, in order to justify hi s desertion of religion altogether.

The Interview with David Konig - a Professor at the Washington Essay

The Interview with David Konig - a Professor at the Washington University - Essay Example The person I chose to interview in this case was David Konig, a professor at Washington University. The interview was conducted within the institution for the purpose of convenience to the professor. I particularly chose a person in the teaching profession because this is one profession that employs the importance of effective listening most of the time. The interview conducted lasted twenty minutes and these twenty minutes were actually the most insightful minutes I have ever had with regards to the art of listening in individuals. It is of the essence to understand what it really means to listen effectively in the education sector. This is a particularly touchy issue in the sense that when it is taken lightly there tends to be a very high chance that the wrong information will be communicated to the target audience. In education, especially, active listening entails being in a position to communicate to what a person hears from the speaker. The main reason for this is to establish whether the person has understood that which is being passed across. Indeed it is true that listening is a process. In this light, it can be set as a three-step process. These steps are actually the most important if effective listening is to be achieved. The first step is that of comprehending that which is being communicated. This is what will point out whether there is actual communication to the recipient. The next step is retaining the communication that has been received.  

TREASURY & RISK MANAGEMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

TREASURY & RISK MANAGEMENT - Essay Example The TMEM’s president had to come up with a proposal, on how to reduce and even eliminate the losses, and present it to the company CEO in Japan. Therefore, this case analysis will seek to provide possible reasons that could have forced the company to delay shifting its manufacturing centers for European market to Europe. Also, analysis of both the effects that could have been experienced if the Euro had joined European Monetary Union and other factors on the company’s situation will be provided. Next, possible problems leading to the losses being experienced by the company will be categorized into either short term or long term. The final part of analysis will provide recommendation of appropriate measures that the company should have taken to resolve the problems. There are a number of reasons that might have forced Toyota to delay in moving its manufacturing for European sales to Europe. The most probable reasons could be associated with the depreciation of Euro against major currencies, the expected costs of setting up the plant, availability of labor, anticipated risks of either losing their intellectual property as a result of theft, need for up-to-date innovations, strategic problems as well as feeling of being unprepared. To begin with off shoring manufacturing to Europe without a clear thought of plan could have resulted into two strategic problems (Wood 2009). One of the strategic problems is logistical issues. Spreading out manufacturing activities without having a good plan in place could expose the company to unexpected disruption of important supplies. Although the need to offshore manufacturing to Europe could have been appropriate in enabling the company to compete with its rivals, responding to customers’ needs could hav e been a problem (Bessis 2011). The other reason that could have resulted to a delay in shifting manufacturing to Europe

Histamine Stimulated Small Intestine

Histamine Stimulated Small Intestine The longitudinal smooth muscle of the guinea-pig ileum small intestine contracts in response to acetylcholine. These contractions can be reduced by the application of adenosine and related compounds. The guinea-pig ileum is innervated by the enteric, sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic and enteric fibres release acetylcholine which acts on muscarinic receptors. The action of adenosine and its receptor antagonists can be assessed by comparing electrically induced contractions via electrical field stimulation and histamine induced contractions. Electrical field stimulation contractions cause presynaptic release of acetylcholine to produce contractions where as the histamine induced contractions cause postsynaptic contractile responses. Throughout this study adenosine and its receptor antagonist actions will be investigated and compared using electrical field stimulation and histamine. The contraction of the gut In gastrointestinal smooth muscles, researches show that there are two types of muscarinic receptors types that are present as targets to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Okamoto et al., 2002).Acetylcholine and its derivatives produce contractions by activating muscarinic receptors. The muscarinic receptors types are known as M2 and M3. Binding Studies have portrayed that the number of M2 receptors is greater than that of the M3 receptors however functional studies have shown that M3 muscarinic receptors play a fundamental role in mediating the contractile response (Eglen et al., 1996) and the functional role of M2 exists as unclear (Clague et al., 1985). The M3 receptor is coupled with G proteins, causing activation of phospholipase C and formation of inositol trisphosphate and diacylglycerol, which are expected to contribute in muscarinic receptor mediated smooth muscle contractions (Unno et al., 2005). They also mediate relaxation due to the release of nitric oxide from neighbo uring endothelial cells. M3 receptors in visceral smooth muscle contribute to the smooth muscle stimulating effect of muscarinic agonists. However the muscarinic receptor most abundant in the ileum is the M2 which cause an indirect contraction of the guinea-pig ileum by preventing the relaxing effect of drugs (Ehlert and Thomas, 1995). Both muscarinic receptor subtypes are activated by acetylcholine and produce a contractile response; however they vary in their transduction mechanisms and signalling pathways. Adenosine Adenosine has numerous diverse roles in normal physiology; such roles include promoting/maintaining sleep, regulating state of encouragement as well as local neuronal excitability and coupling cerebral blood flow to energy demand (Dunwiddie and Masino, 2001). It exists free in the cytosol of all cells and is transported in and out of all cells mainly using a membrane transporter(Rang et al., 2007). Under normal conditions, adenosine is formed intracellularly as well as extracellularly (Fredholm et al., 2001). ATP is stored in vesicles and released by exocytosis. It is also available in the cytosol of cells and is taken up and released via a specific membrane transporter. Released ATP and ADP are rapidly converted to adenosine by the action of tissue nucleotides. Studies have shown that there are pathways that contribute to adenosine formation, a) by the action of adenylate kinase and cystolic 5-nucleotidase, b) formation from hydrolysis of adenosine 3, 5 phosphate and c) formation by the action of S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH) hydrolase. The pharmacological effects of adenosine include smooth muscle relaxation and inhibition of nerve activity, lipolysis and platelet aggregation(Daly et al., 1983). There is evidence that stimulation or inhibition is of adenylate cyclise is involved in adenosine action and therefore it has been concluded that adenosine is mediated by cyclic AMP. Based on its ability to inhibit cell function and thus minimise the metabolic requirements of cells, one of its functions may be as a protective agent released when tissue integrity is threatened. Adenosine exerts its physiological actions activation of a number of specific cell surface receptors. There are four different adenosine receptors known as A1, A2A, A2B, and A3. Some characteristics of these receptors are presented in Figure 1a. These subtypes have been distinguished on the basis of their agonist and antagonist selectivity. They belong to the G protein-coupled receptors. Mechanism of Adenosine action Adenosine A1 receptors are negatively coupled to the inhibition of adenylate cyclase, however they can act through other pathways such as stimulation of phospholipase C, activation of potassium channels and inhibition of N-type calcium channels (Zizzo et al., 2009). A1 receptors are coupled to Gi and G0 proteins and lead to inhibition of adenylate cyclase and consequently cause a decrease in cAMP (Ranjit, 2008). Adenosine A2A and A2B are coupled for activation of adenylate cyclise whereas A3 receptors have been shown to stimulate phospholipase C and D, to inhibit adenylate cyclase and to activate ATP sensitive potassium channel (Ralevic and Burnstock, 1998). Activation of these receptors require comparatively high amounts of adenosine. A2A and A2B receptors have a high and a low affinity for adenosine respectively. Receptor Subtype A1 A2A A2B A3 Transduction mechanism Inhibits adenylyl cyclase Activates adenylyl cyclase Activates adenylyl cyclase Inhibits adenylyl cyclase Primary distribution Brain (cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus). Dorsal horn of spinal cord. Eye, adrenal gland, atria Spleen, thymus, leukocytes, blood platelets. Straitopallidal GABAergic neurons, olfactory bulb Caecum, colon, bladder Testis, mast cells Tissue functions Antinociception, Hypothermia. Sedation, Sleep, Inhibition of lipolysis, Cardio and neuroprotection Reflex tachycardia, vasodilation, inhibition of platelet aggregation, sleep protection against ischemia Relaxation of vascular and intestinal smooth muscle, cytokine production, inhibition of cell proliferation Mast cell degranulation, coronary vasodilation and protection from reperfusion Selective antagonists DPCPX PSB 36 SCH 58261 PSB 1115 potassium salt MRS 3777 hemioxalate Figure 1a: Summary of adenosine receptors. Adenosine and the enteric functions of the Gut The enteric nervous system (ENS) consists of a compilation of neurons in the gastrointestinal nervous system which is capable of functioning independently of the central nervous system. It moderates motility, secretion, microcirculation, inflammatory and immune responses of the gastrointestinal tract (Altaf and Sood, 2008). The ENS is composed of extrinsic, which consists of parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions and the intrinsic component which encloses neurons. Intestinal functions results from an interaction between the ENS, smooth muscle and the mucosal/immune system. The network is regulated by several mediators; however there is consolidating evidence that adenosine is a significant regulating agent (Bueno, 2000) (Wood, 2004). Studies show that in the small intestine adenosine and adenosine derivatives where found to inhibit cholinergic transmission in guinea-pigs via a prejunctional action on neurotransmitter release (Gustafsson et al., 1978). The action of the A1 receptor s allowed mediation of the inhibitory action of adenosine in the cholinergic transmission(Shinozuka et al., 1985) of motor neurones innervating circular and longitudinal smooth muscle however A2A receptors have been reported to reduce the cholinergic motor responses(Gustafsson et al., 1985a; Gustafsson et al., 1985b). Histamine Histamine has a role as a primary transmitter or neuromodulator and it is widely distributed within mammalian tissues. (Izzo et al., 1998). Histamine is a vasoactive substance to be identified in the body which can rapidly metabolise and holds properties of being highly polar and not diffusing readily across cell membranes or the blood-brain barrier. It is stored in mast cells and basophils of blood and has two receptors known as H1 and H2. The release of histamine could cause changes in the cardiovascular system and induce anaphylactic shock. Histamine has been shown to induce gastric acid secretion through the H2 receptors linked to cyclic AMP production in oxyntic cells. Researches show that gastric cells of the guinea-pig may have a class of binding sites for histamine which shows no relationship to adenylate cyclase and the H2 receptor. Histamine creates a spasmogenic effect on the intestine that results from H1 receptor stimulation(Guy A. and Settipane, 1988-1989). There are three histamine subtypes known as H1, H2 AND H3 and all three have been identified to be present in the guinea pig small intestine. Studies show that H1 receptor subtypes mediate the contraction of the longitudinal muscle in the small intestine (Izzo et al., 1998). However researchers also state that the effect of histamine is predominantly due to the interaction with H1 receptors located on smooth muscle cells and moderately due to the interaction H2 receptors present on myenteric plexus interneurones (Bauer and Matusak, 1988). AIMS The aim is to confirm the prejunctional action of adenosine and examine whether adenosine has the additional ability to relax the smooth muscle directly. The project will use histamine to contract the smooth muscle and the objective is to find out whether adenosine can reduce these contractions and if so is the concentration range similar to that needed to inhibit the contractions to the electrical field-stimulation? It will also be investigated what adenosine receptor subtype is involved (A1, A2A, A2B, A3 identified using selective antagonists). METHOD Animals and preparation of tissue Dunkin Hartley guinea-pigs (250g +) of male sex that had previously been fed Harlan 2040, the guinea-pig diet and ad lib filtered tap water, were obtained from Harlan UK. They were group housed and provided with grade 6 woodchip and hay bedding. Their enrichment consisted of plastic and cardboard fun tunnels, plastic igloos and gnawing blocks. Furthermore they were kept at room temperatures of 19-23 °C and at room humidity of 45-65%. They were provided with 12 hours light and 12 hours of dark lighting. The guinea-pigs were stunned by a blow to the head and sacrificed by exsanguination. Two segments of 3cm length were removed from the distal part of the small intestine, for each tissue the ends were tied with cotton threads to the tissue holder and then suspended in 20ml organ baths containing Krebs solution (composition in mM: NaCl, 118; NaHCO3, 25; Glucose, 11; KCl, 4.7; CACl2, 2.5; KH2PO4, 1.18; MgSO4, 1.18). This was aerated with 95% O2 and 5% CO2 and maintained at 37 °C. The tissues were left for 30minutes to equilibrate under a resting tension of 1g before starting the stimulation. Experimental protocol The organ baths were equipped with parallel electrodes which allowed electrical field stimulation to be transmitted at a frequency of 0.1Hz, 40V, 0.5ms pulse duration. Contractions of the ileum were measured with isometric transducers (ADInstruments Force Transducers), amplified and recorded onto a data capture system (Lab Charts on the PC). The tissues were allowed to stabilise in the organ baths in order to reach steady contractions. Figure 1b represents the experimental set up. C:UsersHomeDocumentsDSC00308.JPG Figure 1b shows the laboratory designed set up for the experiment, with a set of two organ baths. There were several parts (a-e) to the experiments to be carried out on the ileum. n is the number of ileum used throughout the experiment n=18. The number of experiments carried out on the ileum was 56. Effect of Adenosine-the experiment consisted of stimulating the tissues continuously with electrical field stimulation and adding cumulative concentrations of adenosine (10-11M 10-4M) to the organ baths and the responses were recorded. Effect of Histamine- the tissues were stimulated with histamine, cumulative concentrations of histamine (10-11M 10-4M) were added to the organ bath and responses were measured. The concentration 110-6M gave the maximum response and a steady contraction, it was used to contract the tissue with adenosine. Effect of Adenosine in the presence of Histamine- the concentration of histamine that gave the maximum and steady response was added to organ bath. The tissue was permitted to stabilise in order to reach steady contractions. Once reached, cumulative concentrations of adenosine were added (10-8M 10-4M) in order to observe the responses of the ileum to adenosine in the presence of histamine. Effect of PSB36(10-8M) SCH58261(10-7M) to confirm identity of receptors being investigated, cumulative dose-response curves for induced contractions by histamine were observed for adenosine in the presence of selective antagonists, PSB36 and SCH58261. An experiment was also carried out, which involved electrical field stimulation to contract the tissue, adenosine was added in the presence of these antagonists. Effect of Atropine Atropine concentrations of 10-6M 10-7M were added to establish the effects of atropine on the electrically field stimulated ileum. For each drug that was being tested except atropine, the experiment was repeated at least six times. The tissue was washed out three times at least after an experiment was completed and was allowed to recover before another experiment was carried out. The electrical field stimulation was also switched off each time the tissue was washed out. Chemicals and drugs The drugs that were used consisted of Adenosine hemisulphate salt, Histamine diphosphate salt and Atropine sulphate salt which were all purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, Poole, UK. PSB36 and SCH58261 and DMSO (Dimethyl sulfoxide) were purchased from Tocris -Cookson, Bristol, UK. All drugs were dissolved in distilled water with exceptions of PSB36 AND SCH58261 which were diluted with DMSO.10ml of stock solution were made up in each case. Statistical Analysis All drug concentrations presented were final bath concentrations. The drug effects were expressed as twitch contraction (g). All data were given as means  ± S.E.M, where n represents the number of animals from which tissues were taken and on which observations were made. Inhibitory effects by adenosine in the field stimulated guinea pig ileum were measured and the responses of ileum twitch contraction were recorded for each concentration applied. This was repeated when using adenosine receptor antagonists. Adenosine responses were fitted onto concentration-response curve. Effects of histamine stimulated guinea pig ileum were also recorded. Adenosine responses and its receptor antagonist response were measured and plotted. 3.0 RESULTS a. b. Figure 2. The effect of adenosine concentrations in the guinea-pig ileum. Data are means  ±S.E.M and are expressed as an average of contractions (g). a. Representative traces showing inhibitory responses induced by adenosine. b. Concentration response curve for adenosine representing the average twitch response (g) when cumulative adenosine concentrations were added. Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M (n=6). Figure 3a: Original trace illustrating twitch response abolished by atropine 10-6M final bath concentration. b. c. Figure 3. Influences of atropine and potent and selective A1 adenosine receptor antagonist PSB36 10-7M AND 10-8M on guinea-pig ileum. b. Twitch responses of the guinea-pig ileum preparation to electrical field stimulation in the presence of PSB36 10-7M (n=6) and PSB36 10-8M (n=4), compared to twitch responses to adenosine alone. The experiments carried out were not paired. Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M. c. Contractions of the guinea-pig ileum preparation stimulated by histamine in the presence of PSB36 10-7M (n=6) and PSB36 10-8M (n=4), compared to responses to adenosine when stimulated with histamine (n=6). The experiments carried out were not paired. Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M. a. b. Figure 4. Summarises the effect of potent and selective A2A adenosine receptor antagonist SCH58261 10-7M on guinea-pig ileum. a. Twitch responses of the guinea-pig ileum preparation to electrical field stimulation in the presence of SCH58261 10-7M (n=6), compared to twitch responses to adenosine alone. The experiments carried out were not paired. Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M. b. Contractions of the guinea-pig ileum preparation stimulated by histamine in the presence of SCH58261 10-7M (n=6), compared to responses to adenosine when stimulated with histamine (n=6). The experiments carried out were not paired. Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M. Figure5a. A concentration-response curve illustrating the effects of adenosine on the guinea-pig ileum when the tissue is stimulated with histamine. . Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M (n=6). Figure 5b. Responses of the guinea-pig ileum to cumulative concentrations of histamine. Each point with bar represents the mean  ± S.E.M (n=8). Electrical field stimulated guinea-pig ileum produced reproducible twitch responses to adenosine. Adenosine concentrations ranging from 10-8M final bath concentration caused concentration dependent inhibitory effects. Administration of increasing adenosine concentrations decreased electrically evoked acetylcholine release from the cholinergic nerve endings of the ileum (Figure2). Figure 2b clearly portrays that adenosine has no effect at low final bath concentrations of 10-11M. Atropine 10-6M final bath concentration abolished the twitch responses to electrical field stimulation confirming they were produced by cholinergic nerve stimulation (Figure3). In the presence of selective A1 adenosine receptor antagonist PSB36 10-7M and 10-8M concentration and electrical field stimulation, the twitch responses to adenosine decreased, when adenosine was applied at higher concentrations, the twitch responses became smaller as acetylcholine release was inhibited and completely prevented by PSB36. Figure 3a shows the curve shifted to the right when PSB36 10-8 was administered compared to the curve of adenosine. When PSB36 10-7 was applied there is a slight shift of the curve to the right compared to the adenosine curve. The effects of the antagonist PSB36 are seen significantly at 10-8M final bath concentration as the shift of the curve is greater. The highest response the ileum produced was as at adenosine concentration of 1 x 10-8M, the responses lowered slightly at 1 x 10-6M and consequently decreased rapidly at 1 x 10-5M final bath concentrations. Histamine induces contractions in the ileum. Addition of cumulative concentrations of adenosine in the presence of PSB36 10-7M produced small responses compared to the contractions produced in the presence of PSB36 10-8M. The effect of PSB36 10-8M caused a rightward shift compared to the curve representing the effect of adenosine in the presence of histamine (Figure 3b). Electrically field stimulated ileum in the presence of the selective adenosine receptor competitive antagonist SCH58261 produced smaller responses (Figure 4a). Following administration of cumulative concentrations the responses decreased however produced no right shift in the dose response curve. Histamine excites the tissue causing it to contract and producing a high response, when adenosine is applied in the presence of SCH58261, the responses are inhibited and acetylcholine release is decreased and thus there is a decrease in the shape of the curve in Figure 4b. The results expressed in Figure 5a illustrate the inhibitory effects of adenosine in the ileum. Figure 5b illustrates the effects of histamine concentrations on the ileum. The experiment was carried out to investigate the best concentration to use so that a maximum and strong, reproducible contraction would be produced; the figure confirmed 110-6M final bath concentration to give the highest and steady contraction of the tissue. Moreover this permitted to obtain a dose-response curve for adenosine with histamine providing a suitable starting concentration for each drug at 110-8M. DISCUSSION The results of this present study show that adenosine plays an inhibitory role on muscular contractility in guinea-pig ileum. Adenosine prevents the neuroeffector transmission in guinea-pig ileum. The action of adenosine appeared to be cholinergic prejunctional in nature, this is portrayed when adenosine is applied to electrically field stimulated guinea-pig ileum(Gustafsson et al., 1985b). The action of adenosine on histamine stimulated guinea-pig ileum in the absence and presence of adenosine antagonists also indicates reduction in neuroeffector transmission however due to postjunctional action. The effect of adenosine on the guinea-pig ileum can be observed in Figure 2. Adenosine produced a dose-dependent depression on the response. It reduced the electrically evoked acetylcholine release from the ileum. A1 and A2 receptors have been reported to reduce acetylcholine release in the gastrointestinal tract(Tomaru et al., 1995). Adenosine released from neuronal endings is thought to have direct actions on smooth muscle as they illustrate relaxant neurotransmitters in the gastrointestinal tract(Storr et al., 2002). Atropine is a competitive antagonist for the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor, consequently when applied to the ileum at 10-6M final bath concentration; there is rapid inhibition of response confirming that the twitch responses were produced by cholinergic nerve stimulation. Adenosine inhibited the twitch response of the electrically stimulated guinea-pig ileum preparation, in the presence of PSB36 10-8M final bath concentration there was a right shift in the adenosine curve thus interpreting that higher concentrations were required to lower the twitch response. The general trends that Figure 3a displays is that the curves have the same form; the linear proportions of the curves are parallel. The traces help to show the changes in the response curve to adenosine and adenosine selective receptor antagonist PSB36. There is a slight fall in tension when adenosine 310-7M was applied in the presence of PSB36 10-8M; however there was a rapid decrease when adenosine 110-5M was administered causing the right shift in the Figure. Upon cumulative additions of adenosine to field stimulated guinea pig ileum the concentration required to inhibit acetylcholine release was of 310-7M, the effects diminish once concentration of adenosine 110-5M was added providing evidence that adenosine has the ability to relax smooth muscle in the ileum. Since PSB36 is a potent and selective A1 adenosine receptor antagonist, the A2A receptors increase electrically induced twitch contractions in the guinea pig ileum, which contributes to assistance of acetylcholine release (Storr et al., 2002). The effects of adenosine in the presence of PSB36 10-7M 10-8M to histamine stimulated guinea pig ileum can be observed in Figure 3b. Histamine administration to the guinea pig ileum caused a tonic histamine contraction which was followed by after-relaxation response, and application of adenosine inhibited the acetylcholine release. The ileum responses were reduced significantly with lower concentrations of adenosine in the presence of PSB36 10-7M and 10-8M compared to the concentrations of adenosine required in the electrically field stimulated ileum confirming that A1 receptors are the subtype present in the guinea pig ileum which cause the inhibition of acetylcholine release. SCH58261 did not significantly affect the position of the rightward shift however additions of cumulative adenosine concentrations caused reduction in the tension produced by the ileum. Large standard error bars can be observed in the figures, these may be due to human handling errors, i.e. micropipetting errors, administrating less or more concentration of adenosine or antagonists. Protein build up causing contamination in organ baths can also contribute to acquiring inaccurate results. Particular cells of the tissue may have become inactive at that moment of time. Furthermore it could be that the piece of thread holding the tissue may have become loose i.e. equipment errors and consequently tension was not measured accurately. It could also be due to unknown errors. Evidence that adenosine inhibits cholinergic neuroeffector transmission in the ileum by a prejunctional action on acetylcholine release can be of functional importance as adenine compounds are released during stimulation of intestinal nerves (Tomaru et al., 1995). Antagonists selective for adenosine receptors are beneficial in the research treatment of numerous conditions including cardiovascular, neurodegenerative and inflammatory diseases. In summary, the present study has confirmed the existence of presynaptic A1 receptors on the parasympathetic nerve terminals in the guinea pig ileum which upon activation causes inhibition of electrically induced neurogenic, cholinergic twitch contractions.